Had Albert Einstein in 1935 described the EPR Paradox as simply "knowledge at a distance" (Fernwissen) instead of "action at a distance" (Fernwerkung), scientists and philosophers would have been spared decades of puzzlement!

In 1933, shortly before he left Germany to emigrate to America, Einstein attended a lecture on quantum electrodynamics by Leon Rosenfeld. Keep in mind that Rosenfeld was perhaps the most dogged defender of the Copenhagen Interpretation. After the talk, Einstein asked Rosenfeld,

“What do you think of this situation?

"Suppose two particles are set in motion towards each other with the same, very large, momentum, and they interact with each other for a very short time when they pass at known positions. Consider now an observer who gets hold of one of the particles, far away from the region of interaction, and measures its momentum: then, from the conditions of the experiment, he will obviously be able to deduce the momentum of the other particle. If, however, he chooses to measure the position of the first particle, he will be able tell where the other particle is."

(Niels Bohr, His Life and Work as seen by His Friends and Colleagues, 1967, S. Rozental, pp.128-129)

It is most unfortunate that Einstein did not explain that measuring the momentum of the distant particle allows us to deduce the momentum of the first particle because of the conservation of linear momentum.

It's a conservation principle that explains why Einstein says, "If, however, he chooses to measure the position of the first particle, he will be able tell where the other particle is." If Einstein had called this ability to tell "knowledge (information) at a distance," instead of "spooky action at a distance," entanglement might never have been thought "spooky" at all, just a correlation of properties.

We can diagram a simple case of Einstein’s question as follows after the particles have interacted and separate from the center. We use electrons instead of generic particles, an anachronism introduced by David Bohm in 1952.

After the particles interact at t₁, quantum mechanics describes them with a single two-particle wave function that is not the product of independent single-particle wave functions. In the case of electrons, which are indistinguishable interchangeable particles, it is not proper to say electron 1 goes this way and electron 2 that way. (Nevertheless, it is convenient to label the particles, as we do in the illustration.)

Einstein then asked Rosenfeld,

“How can the final state of the second particle be influenced by a measurement performed on the first after all interaction has ceased between them?”

This was the germ of the EPR paradox, and ultimately the problem of two-particle entanglement.

Why does Einstein question Rosenfeld and describe this as an “influence,” suggesting an “action-at-a-distance?”

It is only paradoxical in the context of Rosenfeld’s Copenhagen Interpretation, since the second particle is not itself measured and yet we know something about its properties, which the Copenhagen Interpretation says we cannot know without an explicit measurement..

Einstein was clearly correct to tell Rosenfeld that at a later time t₂, a measurement of one particle's position would instantly establish the position of the other particle - without measuring it. Einstein simply used conservation of linear momentum implicitly to calculate (and know) the position of the second particle.

Two years later, reacting to EPR, Schrödinger described two such particles as becoming "entangled" (verschränkt) at their first interaction, so "nonlocal" phenomena are also known as "quantum entanglement."

Although conservation laws are rarely cited as the explanation, they are the physical reason that entangled particles always produce correlated results for their properties. If the results were not always correlated, the implied violation of a fundamental conservation law would cause a much bigger controversy than entanglement itself, as puzzling as that is.

Philosopher of science Abner Shimony suggested the term "Passion-at-a-Distance." Although he did not say what he meant by passion, we do acquire distant knowledge "passively," without actively doing anything to the distant particle.

In 2009, one of Shimony's students, Don Howard, elaborated on Shimony's thinking.

In 1984, Abner Shimony invented the expression, "passion at a distance," to characterize the distinctive relationship of two entangled quantum mechanical systems. It is neither the local causality of pushes, pulls, and central forces familiar from classical mechanics and electrodynamics, nor the non-local causality of instantaneous or just superluminal action at a distance that would spell trouble for relativity theory. This mode of connection of entangled systems has them feeling one another's presence and properties enough to ensure the strong correlations revealed in the Bell experiments, correlations that undergird everything from superfluidity and superconductivity to quantum computing and quantum teleportation, but not in a way that permits direct control of one by manipulation of the other. Intended to echo Aristotle's distinguishing of "potentiality" from "actuality" as different senses of "being," Shimony's "passion at a distance" is all about tendency and propensity, not the concreteness whose misplacement in realm of the physical was lamented by Alfred North Whitehead.

Quantum Reality, Relativistic Causality, and Closing the Epistemic Circle 2009, p. 3

But the particles do not (passionately?) "feel one another's presence and properties."
That would require actions.

The "strong correlations revealed in the Bell experiments" are the consequence of a basic conservation principle underlying both classical and quantum mechanics. We describe it as a "common cause" in the shared past light cone of the two particles.

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