Gottlob Frege
Retrieved June 19, 2025, from Information Philosopher
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Gottlob Frege
Gottlob Frege was a German logician, mathematician, and language philosopher. His great goal was to reduce mathematics, or at least arithmetic, to a form of logic, in order to provide mathematics with a proper foundation. Greatly influenced by Frege, Bertrand Russell, working with Alfred North Whitehead, tried to do the same with their Principia Mathematica, and later, working with his pupil Ludwig Wittgenstein, Russell tried to reduce science and all knowledge to a kind of logical atomism. Logical positivism, or logical empiricism (as the Vienna Circle of philosophers called it) thought that all of science could be represented with a set of verifiably true statements.. All these foundational projects were failures, although some advances in logic and language philosophy were made.
We trace this fundamental idea of capturing all knowledge in language-independent logical statements back through Frege to Gottfried Leibniz. In his 1879 Begriffsschrift (or "Concept-Writing"), Frege developed a propositional calculus to determine the truth values of propositions from their general form, not from any particular predicates (using specific words, names, properties, attributes, relations, etc.) The propositional calculus, a truth-functional analysis of statements as a whole, is widely considered to be the greatest advance in logic since Aristotle, whose logic of syllogisms was a predicate logic, where truths depend on the meaning of individual terms in the predicate (or the subject). Frege may then be regarded as the originator of the idea of the logical positivists, e.g., Russell and Wittgenstein, that all of knowledge, including science, may be represented in propositions. But since these propositions are written in his new notation, an "ideography" for an ambiguity-free language, it is not clear what knowledge can actually be expressed. Frege knows the idea of ambiguity-free language goes back to Leibniz.
In Frege's 1892 Über Sinn und Bedeutung ("Sense and Reference"), he distinguished the sense (meaning, connotation, intension, significance) from the reference (name, denotation, extension, signifier). Frege speculated that two references to the same object could therefore be considered "identical" in that respect even if the "names" are distinct. This gives rise to the sophisticated modern idea of the "necessity of identity." This motivated several philosophers to develop a new theory of how words refer to objects, especially in modal contexts. It gave rise to Saul Kripke's theories about "possible world semantics." What we call a "concept" about a material object is some subset of the information in the object, accurate to the extent that the concept is isomorphic to that subset. By "picking out" different subsets, we can sort objects. We can compare objects, finding them similar qua one concept and different qua another concept. We can say that "a = b" qua color but not qua size. Frege said that "the Morning Star = the Morning Star" is an identity and therefore tautological and tells us nothing. But "the Morning Star = the Evening Star" has cognitive value. Because there are well-known difficulties with the English translation of Sinn und Bedeutung, we prepared a bilingual version of Frege's original German and the popular translation by Max Black and Peter Geach. So far we provide the first few critical pages and important last paragraph. Black's choice of English terms was complicated, because the German terms Sinn and Bedeutung are both frequently translated as "meaning." Black translated it as "reference." He could have chosen "denotation" following Bertrand Russell ("On Denoting") and John Stuart Mill, who very nicely distinguishes denotation from connotation (meaning). . Our English title would then have been Meaning and Denotation, and would have very likely been much less confusing to modern readers. (Russell suggested this very translation in his 1905 On Denoting, p. 383) The etymological base of bedeuten is to indicate, to point out (ostension is used by the logical philosophers). The root of denotation is to mark, to provide a sign for something. To designate is very close, and Frege uses the German equivalent bezeichnen and Bezeichnet (signified). But its use in recent philosophy is to name. The English denominate is literally to name, German benennen, but broadly to assign things to categories, which much of linguistic philosophy tries to do with set theory and logic. To refer is etymologically to send back, to relate one thing to another. This is what a word or name bears to an object, so perhaps is what Frege then and Quine and Kripke recently are trying to explain. Black provided a list of translations for several important terms we list here.
In modern times, Frege's insight has been defended with elaborate logical arguments, using Leibniz's Law about identity and indiscernibility, that seem to suggest that for any a and b,
∀x ∀y (x = y) ⊃ [◻(x = x) ⊃ ◻ (x = y)]
For example, see David Wiggins' 1965 version and Saul Kripke's adaptation of Wiggins' version.
The Necessity of Truth
Leibniz, Frege, Russell and other mathematically inclined philosophers have always hoped to discover "truths" about the world, certain facts that could become the basis for all knowledge of the external world.
After Frege, Russell, and Wittgenstein, philosophy turned toward linguistic analysis of concepts. But some philosophers continued the quixotic search for certainty and truth.
Frege's work has returned in the late twentieth and early twenty-first in the development of modal logic and its insights into "possible worlds." Frege's thoughts about when we can say Frege's shared Leibniz's vision of the "immense increase in the intellectual power of mankind that a system of notation directly appropriate to objects themselves would bring about." Information philosophy uses such system of notation, not in words, but in bits of digital information. And the interconnected computers of the Internet are not only Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator, but humanity's storehouse of shared experiences and accumulated knowledge.
Frege on Meaning
Frege famously distinguished intension and extension (or W. V. O. Quine's ostension) by the German words Sinn and Bedeutung (which translate usually as Sense and Reference). Most logicians follow Frege’s distinction between the reference (denotation, name) and the sense (meaning, concept) of a word. But few know that Frege limited the “sense” to the everyday meaning attached to a word by the users of the language. Frege also described the “idea” or “representation” (Vorstellung) that would form in the mind of the message receiver. This concept, he said, would be different in every mind, since it is dependent on the peculiar experiences of each person. Frege wrote ...one need have no scruples in speaking simply of the sense, whereas in the case of a conception one must precisely indicate to whom it belongs and at what time. It might perhaps be said: Just as one man connects this conception and another that conception with the same word, so also one man can associate this sense and another that sense. But there still remains a difference in the mode of connection. They are not prevented from grasping the same sense; but they cannot have the same conception. Si duo idem faciunt, non est idem. If two persons conceive the same, each still has his own conception.This fits perfectly with our experience recorder and reproducer (ERR) as a model of mind, memory, and knowledge.
References
Frege, G. 1879. Begriffsschrift, ("Concepts Writing"), a formula language, modeled upon that of arithmetic, for pure thought. in Van Heijenoort, J., Frege, G., & Gödel, K. (1970). Frege and Gödel: Two fundamental texts in mathematical logic. Harvard University Press.Frege, G. 1892. Sense and Reference, (translation of Sinn und Bedeutung), The Philosophical Review, 57(3), 209-230. For Teachers
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